Lesson 18 of 22
Grammar for clear, flexible writing
Grammar should express relationships accurately. Sentence variety is useful when it serves meaning; length alone does not make a sentence effective.
A. Complete sentences
A standard sentence needs an independent clause.
Fragment: “Although the cost was lower.”
Complete: “Although the cost was lower, the service remained unpopular.”
Comma splice: “The cost was lower, the service remained unpopular.”
Repair: “The cost was lower, but the service remained unpopular.”
You can also use a full stop: “The cost was lower. The service nevertheless remained unpopular.”
B. Simple, compound, and complex sentences
| Form | Example | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Simple | Car use declined. | State one point directly |
| Compound | Car use declined, and cycling became more common. | Join related independent clauses |
| Complex | Although car use declined, it remained the leading mode. | Express a relationship such as concession |
Use a mixture that reflects your ideas. A concise simple sentence can emphasise a conclusion. A complex sentence can connect a condition to its consequence.
C. Subject–verb agreement
Find the grammatical subject, especially when other nouns intervene.
- “The number of commuters has increased.”
- “A number of commuters have changed their routes.”
- “The percentage of students taking both courses was small.”
- “The figures for the two courses were similar.”
In “The percentage of students…”, “percentage” controls the verb, rather than “students.”
D. Comparatives and parallel structure
Unclear: “Spending in A was higher than B.”
Clear: “Spending in A was higher than spending in B.”
Concise: “Spending in A was higher than that in B.”
Keep both sides grammatically compatible: “Cycling is cheaper than driving,” rather than “Cycling is cheaper than cars.”
For multipliers, write “twice as high as,” “three times as many students as,” or “half the amount spent on.” Avoid ambiguous expressions such as “two times higher” when a direct ratio is available.
E. Articles and countability
Use “a” or “an” with a singular countable noun introduced generally: “a policy,” “an increase.” Use “the” when the noun is identified: “the policy proposed in the question.”
Some common uncountable nouns include “information,” “advice,” “equipment,” and “research.”
Incorrect: “These informations are useful.”
Correct: “This information is useful,” or “These findings are useful.”
“Research” usually refers to the activity or body of work. “A study” refers to an individual investigation.
F. Passive voice
Passive forms use an appropriate form of be + past participle:
- Present: “The material is heated.”
- Past: “The warehouse was removed.”
- Present perfect: “The entrance has been relocated.”
- Future: “A footbridge will be constructed.”
Do not omit “be”: “The material heated” does not normally express the intended passive meaning.
Use active forms when the agent matters or the sentence is more natural: “The council should improve evening services.”
G. Relative clauses
“The science museum, which opened a new wing, attracted more visitors.”
“Students who work during the day may need evening classes.”
A defining clause identifies a group and usually has no surrounding commas. A non-defining clause adds information and is separated by commas. In Task 1, any information added in a relative clause must still be supported by the task.
H. Conditions and cautious claims
“If buses run more frequently, some commuters may stop driving.”
“Remote working can reduce commuting costs for employees whose duties can be performed online.”
“May,” “can,” and “tend to” help express a reasonable limit. Use them because the claim is conditional, rather than inserting them into every sentence.
Avoid unsupported absolutes: “Online education always improves learning.” A more defensible claim is “Online provision can improve access for students who live far from a campus.”
I. Clause and phrase patterns
| Expression | Follow with | Example |
|---|---|---|
| because | a clause | because services are unreliable |
| because of | a noun phrase | because of unreliable services |
| although | a clause | although fares are low |
| despite | a noun or -ing phrase | despite low fares; despite paying less |
| lead to | a noun or -ing phrase | lead to delays; lead to people leaving |
| enable | object + to-infinitive | enable students to attend |
Do not write “Despite the fares were low.” Use “Although the fares were low” or “Despite the low fares.”
J. Punctuation
Use a comma after an introductory dependent clause: “When the material has cooled, it is packaged.” A semicolon can join closely related independent clauses: “Demand increased; capacity remained unchanged.”
“However” does not repair a comma splice. Write “Demand increased. However, capacity remained unchanged,” or “Demand increased; however, capacity remained unchanged.”